The International System of the Bronze Age was a combination of trade and diplomatic measures enacted by states across the near east around 1550 B.C.E. Participants in the “International System” include the major near-eastern empires and smaller states that flourished under the stability and enhanced trade opportunities of the time. The system endured for nearly three centuries as participants realized the benefits of a largely peaceful coexistence. The collapse of the Mycenaean world and the trade disruptions caused by the Sea People’s wave of destruction brought the “International System” to an end.
The near east of the late Bronze Age was dominated by several “super powers” – The Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians and Kassites. Among these titans several smaller city-states like the Ugarits and Babylos became powerful centers for trade and culture. Important trade relationships with the Minoans and the Mycenaean empire were also intertwined in the “International System”.
The benefits of the “International System” allowed it to flourish for three centuries. Military conflict still occurred among participants, but major participants formed treaties as they realized their civilizations would benefit more from trade than conquest. Members became dependent on the goods imported from other states and also developed a deeper understanding of other cultures. The system continued to expand and incorporate other cultures until it started to bring in less stable partners.
The Mycenaean world began to collapse around the end of the thirteenth century B.C.E. The loss of this key diplomatic and trade partner occurred around the same time as the Sea People began their conquests across the near east interrupting trade and leading to the destruction of several empires. This destruction coupled with the decline of Egypt after the loss of its key trading partners brought the “International System” of the late Bronze Age to an end.
The “International System” drove a period of relative peace from 1550 B.C.E. to around 1200 B.C.E. The collapse of the system and the devastation that befell all of the participants showed how closely intertwined the members had become over the course of three centuries. While several empires survived, they were a shadow of their former glory as the Iron Age began.
Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom ruled to glorify themselves while Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom took on the responsibility of caring for the people of Egypt. The shift in responsibility for the Pharaohs was largely influenced by the new role Egypt found itself playing in the outside world, , the much wider distribution of wealth in the Middle Kingdom, and the decline of the Pharaohs power at the end of the Old Kingdom.
Middle Kingdom Pharaoh Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty
Old Kingdom Egyptians kept themselves largely isolated from the outside world. Middle Kingdom Egyptians were brought into this world by the necessities of trade to support a growing Empire and restore a weakened economy. Egypt was a unique culture civilization that feared and misunderstood the outside world. The Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom built massive fortifications along the borders of the country to protect the Egyptians from the outside world.
During the Old Kingdom, all of the wealth of Egypt belonged to and was used for the Pharaoh. During the intermediate period, Egypt became fractured and the wealth of the country became much more widely distributed. Art and culture moved from the Pharaohs courts to the cities of Egypt and became accessible to many more Egyptians. The decentralization of wealth and power played a significant role in transforming Egypt from an Empire that served the Pharaoh to an Empire served by the Pharaoh.
While the Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built pyramids to glorify themselves, the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom built massive fortifications to protect Egyptians. The ability of Pharaohs to derive power from ma’at was lost during the harsh intermediate period and the people of Egypt began to look to their leaders for solutions rather than justifications. The Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom remained powerful rulers, but in order to maintain that power, they had to serve the needs of Egypt.
The Middle Kingdom Pharaoh led a transformed Empire facing new dangers and challenges. The Pharaoh was now responsible for ensuring that Egypt prospered in the wider world without compromising safety. To lead effectively the Pharaoh had to develop new strategies for government that recognized the wealth of Egypt was no longer concentrated into the royal purse. The Middle Kingdom Pharaoh must serve Egypt, and according to many of the “Instructions”, should expect nothing in return.
The Sumerians believed they were created to serve the gods. Religion played a central role in the life of the Sumerians and was the core of their city states. Polytheistic in nature with an evolving view of the afterlife and an adversarial view of their gods, religion for the people of Sumer largely reflected their grim circumstances.
The Sumerian people worshiped many gods. Each city-state was dedicated to a particular god and the defining feature of each city was its massive temple called a ziggurat. The Lugals and Kings of Sumer believe their power was derived from their city god. Hammurabi used his position as leader of Babylon the city dedicated to Marduk, believed to the most powerful God, to legitimize his rule across all of Mesopotamia.
The creation story of the Sumerian people is based on the premise that humanity was created on earth solely to serve the gods. The people would rarely, if ever ask favors of the gods and instead only wished to appease them. Rituals and sacrifices were performed in hopes of staving off the punishment of the gods. Sumerians feared their gods and believed them to be them to be cruel with little concern for human beings.
Sumerians had an evolving view of the afterlife. Prior to 2,550 B.C.E, the afterlife was viewed only bleakly, where the dead journeyed to the “land of no return” and spent eternity in the dark. The building of The Royal Tombs of Ur shows a changing view of the afterlife, at least for the more powerful whose tombs were prepared for enjoyment of the afterlife.
The religious beliefs of the people of Sumer reflected the harsh circumstances of life in the Mesopotamian desert. The construction of their cities, the power of their leaders, and the rituals of their daily lives were all based on their religious beliefs. This tight coupling of religion and society may have been necessary to allow civilization to develop under such harsh circumstances.